Davis, L. L. et al. The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States from a societal perspective. J. Clin. Psychiatry 83, 21m14116 (2022).
Google Scholar
Jordan, H. T. et al. Persistent mental and physical health impact of exposure to the September 11, 2001 World Trade Center terrorist attacks. Environ. Health 18, 12 (2019).
Google Scholar
Lowell, A. et al. 9/11-Related PTSD among highly exposed populations: a systematic review 15 years after the attack. Psychol. Med. 48, 537–553 (2018).
Google Scholar
Cone, J. E. et al. Chronic probable PTSD in police responders in the World Trade Center health registry ten to eleven years after 9/11. Am. J. Ind. Med. 58, 483–493 (2015).
Google Scholar
Galatzer-Levy, I. R., Huang, S. H. & Bonanno, G. A. Trajectories of resilience and dysfunction following potential trauma: a review and statistical evaluation. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 63, 41–55 (2018).
Google Scholar
Able, M. L. & Benedek, D. M. Severity and symptom trajectory in combat-related PTSD: a review of the literature. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 21, 58 (2019).
Google Scholar
Feder, A. et al. Risk, coping and PTSD symptom trajectories in World Trade Center responders. J. Psychiatric Res. 82, 68–79 (2016).
Google Scholar
Pietrzak, R. et al. Trajectories of PTSD risk and resilience in World Trade Center responders: an 8-year prospective cohort study. Psychol. Med. 44, 205–219 (2014).
Google Scholar
Lee, D. J. et al. The 20-year course of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among veterans. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 129, 658–669 (2020).
Google Scholar
Solomon, Z. et al. Predictors of PTSD trajectories following captivity: a 35-year longitudinal study. Psychiatry Res. 199, 188–194 (2012).
Google Scholar
Rosellini, A. J. et al. Recovery from DSM-IV post-traumatic stress disorder in the WHO World Mental Health surveys. Psychol. Med. 48, 437–450 (2018).
Google Scholar
Marmar, C. R. et al. Course of posttraumatic stress disorder 40 years after the Vietnam war: findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Longitudinal Study. JAMA Psychiatry 72, 875–881 (2015).
Google Scholar
Morina, N. et al. Remission from post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of long term outcome studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 34, 249–255 (2014).
Google Scholar
Bui, E. et al. Course of posttraumatic stress symptoms over the 5 years following an industrial disaster: a structural equation modeling study. J. Trauma. Stress 23, 759–766 (2010).
Google Scholar
Livingston, N. A. et al. Longitudinal assessment of PTSD and illicit drug use among male and female OEF-OIF veterans. Addict. Behav. 118, 106870 (2021).
Google Scholar
Zvolensky, M. J. et al. Post-disaster stressful life events and WTC-related posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and overall functioning among responders to the World Trade Center disaster. J. Psychiatric Res. 61, 97–105 (2015).
Google Scholar
Ginzburg, K., Ein-Dor, T. & Solomon, Z. Comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression: a 20-year longitudinal study of war veterans. J. Affect. Disord. 123, 249–257 (2010).
Google Scholar
Blanchard, E. B. et al. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behav. Res. Ther. 34, 669–673 (1996).
Google Scholar
Berlin, K. S., Williams, N. A. & Parra, G. R. An introduction to latent variable mixture modeling (part 1): overview and cross-sectional latent class and latent profile analyses. J. Pediatr. Psychol. 39, 174–187 (2014).
Google Scholar
Skogstad, L., Heir, T., Hauff, E. V. & Ekeberg, Ø. Post-traumatic stress among rescue workers after terror attacks in Norway. Occup. Med. 66, 528–535 (2016).
Google Scholar
Thormar, S. B. et al. The mental health impact of volunteering in a disaster setting: a review. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 198, 529–538 (2010).
Google Scholar
Gandek, B. et al. Cross-validation of item selection and scoring for the SF-12 Health Survey in nine countries: results from the IQOLA Project. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 51, 1171–1178 (1998).
Google Scholar
Ware, J. E., Kosinski, M. & Keller, S. D. A 12-Item Short-Form Health Survey: construction of scales and preliminary tests of reliability and validity. Med. Care 34, 220–233 (1996).
Fujita, F. & Diener, E. Life satisfaction set point: stability and change. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 88, 158–164 (2005).
Google Scholar
Mann, F. D., DeYoung, C. G. & Krueger, R. F. Patterns of cumulative continuity and maturity in personality and well-being: evidence from a large longitudinal sample of adults. Pers. Individ. Dif. 169, 109737 (2021).
Google Scholar
Waszczuk, M. A. et al. Polygenic prediction of PTSD trajectories in 9/11 responders. Psychol. Med. 52, 1981–1989 (2022).
Google Scholar
Mann, F. D. et al. A novel approach to model cumulative stress: area under the s-factor curve. Soc. Sci. Med. 348, 116787 (2024).
Google Scholar
Mann, F. D., Cuevas, A. G. & Krueger, R. F. Cumulative stress: a general ‘s’ factor in the structure of stress. Soc. Sci. Med. 289, 114405 (2021).
Google Scholar
Perrin, M. A. et al. Differences in PTSD prevalence and associated risk factors among World Trade Center disaster rescue and recovery workers. Am. J. Psychiatry 164, 1385–1394 (2007).
Google Scholar
Bromet, E. J. et al. DSM-IV post-traumatic stress disorder among World Trade Center responders 11–13 years after the disaster of 11 September 2001 (9/11). Psychol. Med. 46, 771–783 (2016).
Google Scholar
Wisnivesky, J. P. et al. Persistence of multiple illnesses in World Trade Center rescue and recovery workers: a cohort study. Lancet 378, 888–897 (2011).
Google Scholar
Hagh‐Shenas, H., Goodarzi, M. A., Dehbozorgi, G. & Farashbandi, H. Psychological consequences of the Bam earthquake on professional and nonprofessional helpers. J. Trauma. Stress 18, 477–483 (2005).
Google Scholar
Hobfoll, S. E. et al. Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: empirical evidence. Psychiatry 70, 283–315 (2007).
Google Scholar
Hawn, S. E. et al. Conceptualizing traumatic stress and the structure of posttraumatic psychopathology through the lenses of RDoC and HiTOP. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 95, 102177 (2022).
Google Scholar
Bauer, D. J. & Curran, P. J. Distributional assumptions of growth mixture models: implications for overextraction of latent trajectory classes. Psychol. Methods 8, 338–363 (2003).
Google Scholar
Bauer, D. J. & Curran, P. J. The integration of continuous and discrete latent variable models: potential problems and promising opportunities. Psychol. Methods 9, 3–29 (2004).
Google Scholar
Bauer, D. J. Observations on the use of growth mixture models in psychological research. Multivar. Behav. Res. 42, 757–786 (2007).
Google Scholar
Joseph, K. S., Mehrabadi, A. & Lisonkova, S. Confounding by indication and related concepts. Curr. Epidemiol. Rep. 1, 1–8 (2014).
Google Scholar
Wager, S. & Athey, S. Estimation and inference of heterogeneous treatment effects using random forests. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 113, 1228–1242 (2018).
Google Scholar
Chernozhukov, V. et al. Double/debiased machine learning for treatment and structural parameters. Econom. J. 21, C1–C68 (2018).
Google Scholar
Pietrzak, R. H. et al. The burden of full and subsyndromal posttraumatic stress disorder among police involved in the World Trade Center rescue and recovery effort. J. Psychiatric Res. 46, 835–842 (2012).
Google Scholar
Dasaro, C. R. et al. Cohort profile: World Trade Center Health Program General Responder Cohort. Int. J. Epidemiol. 46, e9 (2017).
Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. et al. Diagnostic Interview Schedule for the DSM-IV (DIS-IV) (Washington Univ. School of Medicine, 2000).
First, M. B. et al. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders–Patient Edition (version 2) (Biometric Research Institute, 1995).
Ware, Jr, J. E. & Sherbourne, C. D. The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36): I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Med. Care 30, 473–483 (1992).
Hunter, J. E. & Schmidt, F. L. Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings (Sage, 2004).
Pinheiro, J. et al. Package ‘nlme’. Linear and nonlinear mixed effects models. R package version 3: 274 (2017).
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B. & Walker, S. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J. Stat. Softw. 67, 1–48 (2015).
Proust-Lima, C. et al. Package ‘lcmm’. R package version 2.1.0 (2023).
Benjamini, Y. & Hochberg, Y. Controlling the false discovery rate—a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J. R. Stat. Soc. Series B Methodol. 57, 289–300 (1995).
Google Scholar
Erler, N. S., Rizopoulos, D. & Lesaffre, E. M. E. H. JointAI: joint analysis and imputation of incomplete data in R. J. Stat. Softw. 100, 1–56 (2021).
Google Scholar
Monson, C. M. et al. Change in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: do clinicians and patients agree? Psychol. Assess. 20, 131–138 (2008).
Google Scholar
Therneau, T. & Lumley, T. R Survival Package. R package version 3.7.0 (2013).
Kassambara, A. et al. Package ‘survminer’. Drawing survival curves using ‘ggplot2’. R package version 0.3.1 (2017).
Hothorn, T. et al. Package ‘lmtest’. Testing linear regression models. R package version 0.9.40 (2022).
Zeileis, A. et al. Package ‘sandwich’. R package version 3-0.03 (2021).
link
More Stories
Emotional pain often outweighs fear in post-traumatic stress disorder
New Resource Empowers Trauma Survivors and Health Professionals
Digital resource aims to enhance trauma-informed health care for people with complex PTSD